Book Summary : The Alchemist

 “The Alchemist” by Paulo Coelho is a philosophical novel that explores themes of destiny, personal legend, and the pursuit of one’s dreams. Here’s a detailed summary and key takeaways from the book:

The story begins with a prologue that introduces the myth of Narcissus, who falls in love with his own reflection in a lake. The lake, in turn, mourns for Narcissus because it saw its own beauty reflected in his eyes. This tale sets the tone for the novel, emphasizing the importance of self-reflection and the pursuit of one’s own dreams.

Santiago’s Journey:The novel follows Santiago, a young Andalusian shepherd who dreams of finding a hidden treasure buried near the Egyptian pyramids. He is content with his simple life of tending sheep but is troubled by a recurring dream in which a child tells him to seek treasure in Egypt. Santiago visits a gypsy fortune-teller who tells him that the dream is prophetic and that he must follow its guidance.

Meeting with Melchizedek:Santiago then meets Melchizedek, the King of Salem, who introduces him to the concept of a “Personal Legend,” which is the path that one is meant to follow in life. Melchizedek gives Santiago two magical stones, Urim and Thummim, which will help him make decisions when he is uncertain. He advises Santiago to sell his sheep and embark on his journey to find the treasure.

Crossing the Desert:Santiago sells his flock and sets off for Africa. He faces several challenges, including being robbed of all his money upon arrival in Tangier. However, he does not give up and finds work at a crystal shop. Santiago’s innovative ideas help the shop prosper, and he learns valuable lessons about perseverance and the pursuit of one’s dreams.

After working at the crystal shop for a year, Santiago earns enough money to continue his journey. He joins a caravan crossing the Sahara Desert and meets an Englishman who is searching for an alchemist who can teach him the secrets of alchemy—the transformation of base metals into gold. The Englishman introduces Santiago to the concept of the “Soul of the World,” which suggests that all of nature is connected and that one can learn the secrets of the universe by understanding it.

The Oasis and Fatima:The caravan arrives at an oasis, where Santiago meets Fatima, a beautiful young woman. Santiago falls in love with her, and she encourages him to continue his journey to find his treasure. She promises to wait for him at the oasis, demonstrating her belief in the importance of pursuing one’s Personal Legend.

At the oasis, Santiago has a vision of an impending attack, which he warns the tribal chieftains about. His vision comes true, and as a reward, he is made a counselor of the oasis. However, Santiago realizes that he must continue his journey, and he meets the alchemist who lives at the oasis.

The Alchemist:The alchemist becomes Santiago’s mentor and teaches him about the Language of the World, the importance of following one’s heart, and the necessity of pursuing one’s Personal Legend despite the obstacles. Together, they set off for the pyramids. Along the way, Santiago learns that the true treasure is the wisdom and knowledge he gains on his journey.

The Revelation:When Santiago finally reaches the pyramids, he begins to dig for the treasure but is confronted by two men who beat him. They dismiss his treasure hunt as foolish, but one of the men reveals that he too had a recurring dream about finding treasure, but it was buried in a ruined church in Spain.

Santiago realizes that the treasure was never in Egypt but back in the church where he first had his dream. He returns to Spain, finds the treasure buried under a sycamore tree at the church, and understands that the journey was the true treasure.

Epilogue:In the epilogue, Santiago plans to return to the oasis to be with Fatima, realizing that he has completed his Personal Legend. He has discovered the interconnectedness of all things, the importance of love, and the fulfillment that comes from pursuing one’s dreams.

Key Takeaways:

1. Pursuing Your Personal Legend:

• The central theme of the novel is the importance of pursuing one’s Personal Legend, or true purpose in life. Santiago’s journey symbolizes the pursuit of this personal calling, reminding readers that everyone has a unique destiny to fulfill.

2. The Journey is the Reward:

• The novel emphasizes that the journey towards fulfilling one’s dreams is as important as the destination. Santiago learns that the experiences, knowledge, and personal growth gained along the way are the true treasures of life.

3. Listening to Your Heart:

• Santiago is guided by his heart throughout his journey. The novel encourages readers to trust their instincts and listen to their inner voice, as it is a direct connection to the Soul of the World.

4. The Unity of Nature:

• “The Alchemist” highlights the interconnectedness of all things. Santiago learns that by understanding the Language of the World, one can comprehend the universe’s deeper truths. This concept reinforces the idea that everything in the world is connected and that understanding this connection is key to achieving one’s dreams.

5. Overcoming Fear:

• Santiago faces many fears on his journey, from the fear of loss to the fear of failure. The novel teaches that fear is a major obstacle in the pursuit of one’s dreams, and it must be confronted and overcome to achieve true fulfillment.

6. The Power of Dreams:

• Dreams play a significant role in guiding Santiago on his journey. The novel suggests that dreams are a form of communication with the Soul of the World and that paying attention to them can lead to self-discovery and fulfillment.

7. Love as a Motivating Force:

• Santiago’s love for Fatima is depicted as a force that motivates him to pursue his Personal Legend. However, the novel also shows that true love is not possessive or limiting; it supports and encourages the pursuit of one’s dreams.

8. The Alchemy of Life:

• The process of alchemy, turning base metals into gold, is a metaphor for personal transformation. Santiago learns that by refining his soul and pursuing his Personal Legend, he can achieve spiritual enlightenment and personal fulfillment.

9. The Importance of Taking Action:

• The novel underscores the importance of taking decisive action in the pursuit of one’s dreams. Santiago’s journey is marked by his willingness to act on his desires, even when faced with uncertainty or danger.

10. Understanding the Omens:

• Throughout the novel, Santiago learns to recognize and follow omens, which guide him on his journey. The novel suggests that the universe provides signs to help individuals fulfill their Personal Legend, and it is up to each person to recognize and act on them.

Conclusion:“The Alchemist” is a timeless tale that inspires readers to pursue their dreams and personal legends. It teaches that the pursuit of one’s destiny is a journey filled with challenges, but it is through these challenges that one finds true fulfillment. The novel encourages self-discovery, inner reflection, and the belief that the universe conspires to help those who follow their hearts.

Book Summary : Power of Subconscious mind

 1. What is the Subconscious Mind?

The subconscious mind is a part of your mind that operates below the level of conscious awareness. It acts as a vast repository of memories, experiences, beliefs, and emotions that have been accumulated over your lifetime. Unlike the conscious mind, which deals with your current thoughts and activities, the subconscious mind operates in the background, influencing your behavior, habits, and decisions in ways that you may not even be aware of.

The iceberg is a classic illustration used to explain the relationship between the conscious and subconscious mind.

The Iceberg:

• Visible Tip (Conscious Mind): The part of the iceberg above the water represents your conscious mind. This is what you are aware of—your thoughts, perceptions, and rational thinking. It’s only a small part of the whole.
• Hidden Bulk (Subconscious Mind): The much larger portion of the iceberg below the surface represents your subconscious mind. It contains your memories, emotions, habits, and past experiences that you are not actively aware of but which still influence your behavior and decisions.

Example:

Imagine you’re in a meeting, and someone makes a comment that makes you feel irritated. You might not consciously understand why, but the irritation stems from a subconscious memory of being criticized in a similar way in the past. Your subconscious mind triggers an emotional response based on that memory, even though you’re not consciously aware of it.

Key Characteristics:

• Automatic Processing: The subconscious mind handles tasks that don't require active thinking, such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. It also automates habitual behaviors, like driving a car or typing.
• Storage of Memories: All of your past experiences, memories, and emotional responses are stored in the subconscious mind. This includes everything from childhood experiences to traumatic events.
• Influence on Behavior: The subconscious mind influences your conscious thoughts, emotions, and actions. It often operates based on ingrained habits, beliefs, and conditioning.

Difference Between the Conscious and Subconscious Minds

The mind is typically divided into three parts: the conscious, subconscious, and unconscious. However, the most commonly discussed aspects are the conscious and subconscious minds.

Conscious Mind:

• Awareness: The conscious mind is responsible for the thoughts and actions you are aware of at any given moment. It includes everything you are consciously experiencing—what you see, feel, hear, and think right now.
• Rationality: The conscious mind is logical and analytical. It processes information based on reasoning, critical thinking, and decision-making.
• Short-Term Memory: The conscious mind deals with information in the present and retains short-term memories for tasks at hand.

Subconscious Mind:

• Automaticity: The subconscious mind works automatically, handling functions without your conscious awareness, such as walking or riding a bike after you’ve learned how.
• Emotional Responses: Emotional reactions often originate in the subconscious mind, influenced by past experiences and stored memories.
• Long-Term Memory: The subconscious mind holds long-term memories, from childhood experiences to skills you’ve mastered over time.

How the Subconscious Mind Works

The subconscious mind operates through a set of principles and mechanisms that differ significantly from the conscious mind. Here's how it works:

1. Pattern Recognition and Automation:

The subconscious mind excels at recognizing patterns and automating processes. For example, once you learn how to ride a bike, the process becomes automatic, allowing you to perform the task without actively thinking about it. This automation frees up your conscious mind to focus on other tasks.

2. Habit Formation:

Habits are formed in the subconscious mind. When you repeatedly perform an action, your subconscious begins to internalize it. This is why habits are so hard to break—they are ingrained in the subconscious. Over time, these habits can influence your behavior and reactions without your conscious input.

3. Emotional Reactions:

The subconscious mind is deeply tied to your emotions. It stores emotional memories and can trigger emotional responses based on past experiences. For instance, if you had a negative experience with public speaking in the past, your subconscious might trigger anxiety whenever you're in a similar situation, even if you're not consciously aware of the connection.

4. Belief Systems:

Your belief systems, which are formed from childhood and throughout life, reside in your subconscious mind. These beliefs can shape your worldview and influence your decisions, often without you realizing it. For example, if you subconsciously believe that you’re not good enough, this belief might hold you back from pursuing opportunities, even if your conscious mind tells you otherwise.

5. Dreaming:

During sleep, the conscious mind rests, and the subconscious becomes more active. This is when dreams occur, which are often a reflection of your subconscious thoughts, fears, and desires. Dreams can be a way for the subconscious mind to process unresolved issues or conflicts.

How the Subconscious Mind is Formed

The subconscious mind is formed over time through a combination of early experiences, conditioning, and repeated thoughts and actions.

1. Early Childhood Experiences:

• Critical Development Period: The foundation of the subconscious mind is laid during early childhood. Children are highly impressionable, and their experiences, whether positive or negative, can leave lasting imprints on their subconscious minds. This is why childhood traumas or positive reinforcement during early years can have a significant impact on adult behavior.
• Absorption of Beliefs: Children absorb the beliefs and attitudes of those around them, particularly from parents, caregivers, and authority figures. These beliefs can become deeply embedded in the subconscious mind.

2. Conditioning and Repetition:

• Classical Conditioning: The subconscious mind is influenced by classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a significant one, leading to a conditioned response. For example, if a child is repeatedly praised for good behavior, they may develop a subconscious belief that good behavior leads to love and acceptance.
• Repetition: Repeated thoughts and behaviors strengthen neural pathways in the brain, making them more likely to be carried out automatically by the subconscious mind. This is how habits are formed and how certain behaviors become ingrained.

3. Emotional Experiences:

• Significant Emotional Events: Intense emotional experiences, whether positive or negative, are often stored in the subconscious. These can influence future behaviors and reactions. For example, a traumatic event can cause a person to develop subconscious fears or anxieties.
• Emotional Conditioning: Over time, the subconscious mind can become conditioned to respond in certain ways to specific stimuli, based on past emotional experiences.

4. Social and Cultural Influences:

• Cultural Norms: The culture and society in which a person grows up also contribute to the formation of the subconscious mind. Cultural norms, values, and expectations are absorbed by the subconscious, shaping behaviors and beliefs.
• Socialization: Interactions with peers, teachers, and society at large continue to influence the subconscious mind throughout life. Social acceptance or rejection can significantly impact subconscious self-esteem and identity.

Practical Implications of the Subconscious Mind

Understanding how the subconscious mind works can have several practical applications:

1. Personal Development:

• Reprogramming Beliefs: By becoming aware of limiting beliefs stored in the subconscious, you can work on reprogramming them through techniques like affirmations, visualization, and positive thinking.
• Habit Change: Breaking bad habits and forming new ones involves working with the subconscious mind. This can be achieved through repetition, mindfulness, and consistency.

2. Emotional Healing:

• Therapy and Counseling: Many therapeutic techniques, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and hypnotherapy, work by accessing and reprogramming the subconscious mind to heal emotional wounds and change destructive patterns.
• Self-Healing Practices: Practices like meditation, journaling, and guided imagery can help in accessing the subconscious mind to release suppressed emotions and heal past traumas.

3. Goal Achievement:

• Visualization and Affirmations: By regularly visualizing your goals and repeating positive affirmations, you can influence your subconscious mind to align with your conscious desires, making it easier to achieve success.
• Mindfulness: Mindfulness practices help you become more aware of the thoughts and beliefs that are operating at the subconscious level, allowing you to consciously direct them towards positive outcomes.

Conclusion

The subconscious mind is a powerful force that shapes your thoughts, behaviors, and experiences. Unlike the conscious mind, which operates on a logical and analytical level, the subconscious is more instinctive and emotional, storing a vast array of memories, habits, and beliefs that influence your daily life. Understanding how the subconscious mind works, how it is formed, and how to interact with it can lead to significant personal growth, emotional healing, and the ability to achieve your goals more effectively.

2. Book Summary : 

The key takeaway from the book "The Power of Your Subconscious Mind" is that the subconscious mind holds immense power to shape your life through the thoughts, beliefs, and emotions it harbors. By understanding and positively influencing your subconscious through techniques like visualization, affirmations, and positive thinking, you can overcome obstacles, achieve your goals, and improve your overall well-being. The book emphasizes that your subconscious mind responds to the beliefs and thoughts you consistently feed it, and by consciously directing these, you can transform your life in meaningful ways.

Chapter 1: The Treasure House Within You

Murphy begins by explaining that your subconscious mind is like a treasure house within you. It stores all your past experiences, memories, and beliefs. The thoughts you consciously think, especially those you dwell on repeatedly, are recorded in your subconscious mind. These thoughts can then influence your actions, habits, and circumstances.

Key Takeaways:

• Your subconscious mind does not reason or question; it accepts what you consciously believe.
• The power of the subconscious is always at work, and it can be a source of immense creativity and intuition.

Chapter 2: How Your Mind Works

In this chapter, Murphy explains the mechanics of the conscious and subconscious minds. The conscious mind is like the captain of a ship, issuing orders to the crew (the subconscious mind). The subconscious mind executes these orders, whether they are good or bad, positive or negative.

Key Takeaways:

• You must carefully guard your conscious thoughts, as they directly influence your subconscious.
• Positive affirmations and beliefs, when repeated, can influence the subconscious to bring about desired changes in your life.

Chapter 3: The Miracle-Working Power of Your Subconscious

Murphy emphasizes that the subconscious mind has an incredible ability to heal and create miracles. He discusses cases where people have cured themselves of ailments by believing in the power of their subconscious minds to heal them.

Key Takeaways:

• The subconscious mind controls all vital processes in your body, such as your heartbeat and digestion, without conscious thought.
• By visualizing yourself in perfect health and repeating positive affirmations, you can engage your subconscious mind to improve your physical condition.

Chapter 4: Mental Healings in Ancient Times

This chapter explores historical accounts of mental healing, including biblical stories and examples from various religious traditions. Murphy suggests that these miracles were the result of strong belief and the power of the subconscious mind.

Key Takeaways:

• Throughout history, faith and belief have been powerful forces in healing.
• Your beliefs and expectations can shape your reality, even in matters of health.

Chapter 5: Mental Healings in Modern Times

Murphy continues the discussion on mental healing by providing contemporary examples. He shares stories of individuals who overcame serious illnesses by changing their mental attitudes and harnessing the power of their subconscious minds.

Key Takeaways:

• Modern science and medicine increasingly acknowledge the role of the mind in physical health.
• Mental imagery and positive thought patterns can lead to remarkable recoveries from illness.

Chapter 6: Practical Techniques in Mental Healing

In this chapter, Murphy provides practical techniques for using the subconscious mind to heal. He emphasizes the importance of relaxation, visualization, and affirmations in achieving a state where the subconscious mind can work effectively.

Techniques Include:

• Visualization: Regularly imagining yourself in perfect health.
• Affirmations: Repeating positive statements about your health and well-being.
• Relaxation: Entering a relaxed state where the subconscious mind is more receptive.

Chapter 7: The Tendency of the Subconscious is Lifeward

Murphy argues that the natural tendency of the subconscious mind is towards health and life. However, this tendency can be overridden by negative thoughts and beliefs.

Key Takeaways:

• The subconscious mind always strives for health and well-being, but you must align your conscious thoughts with this tendency.
• Negativity and fear can disrupt the natural healing processes of the body.

Chapter 8: How to Get the Results You Want

This chapter focuses on the methods you can use to direct your subconscious mind to achieve specific goals. Murphy explains that by clearly defining what you want, visualizing it, and believing in it, you can influence your subconscious mind to bring it into reality.

Key Takeaways:

• Clear, specific goals are essential for directing the subconscious mind.
• Consistent, positive mental imagery helps to reinforce these goals in the subconscious.

Chapter 9: How to Use the Power of Your Subconscious for Wealth

Murphy discusses the idea that wealth is not just about money but about a state of mind. He argues that by focusing on abundance, gratitude, and success, you can attract wealth into your life.

"The Power of Your Subconscious Mind" by Dr. Joseph Murphy is filled with practical examples and case studies that illustrate how individuals have successfully harnessed the power of their subconscious mind to achieve remarkable results. Here are some more examples from the book:

1. Healing Through Faith and Belief:

• Example: Dr. Murphy shares the story of a young woman who suffered from tuberculosis. Despite medical treatments, her condition was deteriorating. She began to repeat the affirmation, "I am perfectly healthy, and my body is in perfect harmony." She visualized herself as healthy and full of energy. Over time, her subconscious mind accepted these positive affirmations as true, leading to her complete recovery.
• Takeaway: The subconscious mind responds to repeated positive affirmations, which can lead to physical healing and overall well-being.

2. Overcoming Financial Difficulties:

• Example: A man who was struggling with financial problems used the technique of affirming, "Wealth is flowing into my life in avalanches of abundance." He visualized himself as financially secure and successful. By consistently feeding these thoughts to his subconscious mind, he eventually experienced a turnaround in his financial situation, with unexpected opportunities and wealth coming his way.
• Takeaway: By visualizing success and affirming prosperity, the subconscious mind can attract wealth and opportunities into your life.

3. Success in Career:

• Example: Dr. Murphy tells the story of an actor who, despite his talent, struggled to find work. He began using the technique of visualization, seeing himself on stage, performing in front of large audiences, and receiving applause. He also repeated the affirmation, "I am a successful actor, and I am performing in great roles." Within a short period, he started getting significant roles and became successful in his career.
• Takeaway: Visualization and positive affirmations can help align the subconscious mind with your career goals, leading to success and fulfillment.

4. Resolving Relationship Conflicts:

• Example: A woman faced ongoing conflict with her husband. Instead of focusing on the negative aspects of their relationship, she began to visualize harmonious interactions and affirmed, "My husband and I live in perfect harmony, peace, and love." By feeding these thoughts to her subconscious, she noticed a change in her husband's behavior, and their relationship improved significantly.
• Takeaway: Positive visualization and affirmations can transform relationships by influencing the subconscious mind to create harmony and understanding.

5. Achieving Personal Goals:

• Example: Dr. Murphy recounts the experience of a man who had a deep desire to travel the world but lacked the financial means. He began to visualize himself traveling and enjoying different places, affirming, "I am traveling the world and experiencing all the beauty it offers." Within a year, he won a world tour as a prize in a contest he entered by chance.
• Takeaway: The subconscious mind can manifest personal goals and desires when it is consistently programmed with positive thoughts and visualizations.

6. Conquering Fear and Anxiety:

• Example: A businessman who was paralyzed by the fear of public speaking used the power of his subconscious mind to overcome this fear. He would visualize himself confidently speaking in front of an audience and repeat the affirmation, "I am calm, confident, and poised in every situation." Over time, his fear dissipated, and he became an effective public speaker.
• Takeaway: The subconscious mind can be reprogrammed to eliminate fears and anxieties through repeated positive affirmations and visualization.

7. Improving Academic Performance:

• Example: A student struggling with poor grades used the power of his subconscious mind by affirming, "I am an excellent student, and I understand and retain everything I learn." He visualized himself successfully answering questions and passing exams. This practice led to a significant improvement in his academic performance.
• Takeaway: Consistent positive affirmations and visualization can enhance cognitive abilities and lead to academic success.

These examples demonstrate the profound impact the subconscious mind can have on various aspects of life, including health, wealth, relationships, career, and personal development. By understanding and leveraging the power of the subconscious mind, as Dr. Murphy outlines, individuals can achieve their goals, overcome challenges, and create a more fulfilling life.

3. Genetic Influence on the Subconscious Mind

the subconscious mind is influenced by genetic aspects, though not entirely guided by them. Here’s how genetics play a role:

1. Inherited Traits and Behaviors:
• Genetic Predispositions: Certain behaviors, tendencies, and emotional responses can be inherited through genetics. For example, some people might have a genetic predisposition to anxiety, which can shape how their subconscious mind reacts to stress or uncertainty.
• Example: If a person inherits a genetic tendency for high sensitivity to stress, their subconscious mind might be more prone to triggering anxiety responses in stressful situations.
2. Epigenetics and Environmental Influence:
• Epigenetic Changes: While genes provide a blueprint, environmental factors (like upbringing, experiences, and lifestyle) can influence how these genes are expressed. This means that while genetic factors contribute to the foundation of the subconscious mind, life experiences can modify or reinforce certain subconscious patterns.
• Example: A person may inherit a genetic tendency for aggression, but if raised in a peaceful environment with positive reinforcement, their subconscious might develop more peaceful and cooperative behavior patterns.
3. Instincts and Survival Mechanisms:
• Evolutionary Psychology: Some aspects of the subconscious mind are rooted in evolutionary biology. Instincts, such as the fight-or-flight response, are deeply embedded in the subconscious and are inherited through generations as survival mechanisms.
• Example: The automatic fear response to danger is a subconscious reaction that has been passed down genetically, helping ancestors survive threats.

Interaction Between Genetics and the Subconscious Mind

• Nature vs. Nurture: The subconscious mind is shaped by both genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). While genetics provide the initial framework, the subconscious mind is highly adaptable and can be reprogrammed through experiences, learning, and deliberate practices like positive affirmations and visualization.

In summary, while genetics play a significant role in influencing the subconscious mind, they do not entirely determine its functioning. Environmental factors, experiences, and conscious efforts can modify and shape how the subconscious mind operates

4. Nature vs Nurture 

The debate of nature vs. nurture revolves around the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development, behavior, and personality. The consensus among scientists is that both nature and nurture play crucial roles, but the extent to which each contributes can vary significantly depending on the trait or characteristic in question.

Nature's Contribution

• Genetics: Nature refers to the genetic makeup inherited from parents. Genes influence physical traits like eye color, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases. They also play a significant role in shaping psychological traits, such as temperament, intelligence, and predispositions to certain mental health conditions (e.g., anxiety, depression).
• Example: Studies on identical twins reared apart show that they often exhibit similar traits and behaviors, indicating a strong genetic influence.

Nurture's Contribution

• Environment: Nurture encompasses all external factors after conception, including upbringing, education, social interactions, and cultural influences. Environmental factors shape how genetic predispositions are expressed and can significantly influence behaviors, values, and life outcomes.
• Example: A child with a genetic predisposition for high intelligence might only reach their potential if provided with a stimulating environment and access to education.

Interaction Between Nature and Nurture

• Epigenetics: Research shows that genes and environment interact in complex ways. Epigenetics, for instance, explores how environmental factors can influence gene expression without altering the underlying DNA. This means that nurture can affect how nature is expressed, potentially turning certain genes on or off depending on life experiences.
• Plasticity: The brain’s plasticity, or its ability to change and adapt, also demonstrates the interaction between nature and nurture. Environmental experiences, especially during critical developmental periods, can shape brain structure and function.

Relative Contribution

• Trait-Specific: The contribution of nature and nurture can vary widely depending on the specific trait or characteristic. For instance, genetic factors may play a more substantial role in determining eye color, while environmental factors might be more influential in shaping language acquisition or moral values.
• Estimates: Some researchers estimate that for many traits, genetics account for about 40-60% of the variance, with the environment accounting for the remaining 40-60%. However, this ratio is not fixed and can differ based on individual circumstances and specific traits.

Conclusion

Both nature and nurture are integral to human development. Rather than competing forces, they work together to shape who we are, with their relative contributions varying depending on the trait or aspect of development being considered.